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Artificial Intelligence Industry In China
The expert system industry in individuals’s Republic of China is a quickly establishing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI development started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms emphasizing science and innovation as the country’s main productive force.
The initial stages of China’s AI development were slow and encountered substantial challenges due to absence of resources and skill. At the starting China was behind a lot of Western countries in regards to AI development. A majority of the research was led by researchers who had received college abroad. [1]
Since 2006, the government of individuals’s Republic of China has progressively developed a national agenda for expert system advancement and became one of the leading countries in artificial intelligence research study and advancement. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) released its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it aimed to become an international AI leader by 2030. [3]
The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI groups” including fifteen China-based companies, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation needed] Each company needs to lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s quick AI advancement has substantially affected Chinese society in many locations, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, accommodation and food services, and manufacturing are the top markets that would be the most impacted by further AI implementation.
The economic sector, university labs, and the military are working collaboratively in numerous aspects as there are couple of present existing borders. [4] In 2021, China released the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its first nationwide law dealing with AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade constraints meant to restrict China’s access to innovative computer chips for AI applications. [5] [6]
Concerns have actually been raised about the effects of the Chinese government’s censorship program on the development of generative expert system and talent acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]
History
The research and advancement of artificial intelligence in China started in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the importance of science and innovation for China’s financial development. [3]
Late 1970s to early 2010s
Artificial intelligence research and development did not begin till the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is due to the influence of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese scientists launched AI research led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, during the time, China’s society still had an usually conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was hard so China’s government approached these difficulties by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and further offering government funds for research study tasks. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who got a PhD in viewpoint from Harvard University. [citation required] In 1987, China’s first research publication on synthetic intelligence was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, wise automation and intelligence have belonged to China’s national innovation strategy. [9]
Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has even more expanded its research study and development funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research projects has actually significantly increased. [3] In 2006, China announced a policy priority for the development of synthetic intelligence, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the same year, expert system was likewise mentioned in the l lth five-year plan. [11]
In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At very same year, the Wu Wenjun Expert System Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the highest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of expert system. The very first award event was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the first time the conference was kept in China. This event corresponded with the Chinese government’s announcement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a substantial milestone in China’s development of synthetic intelligence. [12]
Late 2010s to early 2020s
The State Council of China provided “A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council advised governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of artificial intelligence. Specifically, the plan explained AI as a tactical technology that has actually ended up being a “focus of international competition”. [14]:2 The file prompted considerable financial investment in a number of tactical areas connected to AI and required close cooperation in between the state and private sectors. On the event of CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the very first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” between economic and military ends is an essential part to being a great power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”expert system plus” was proposed to be elevated to a strategic level. [16] The very same year experienced the emergence of multiple application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) established their AI processor chip research study lab in Nanjing, and presented their first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]
In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, launched its first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]
In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to attain this the State Council stated the need for huge skill acquisition, theoretical and practical advancements, along with public and private investments. [14] Some of the mentioned inspirations that the State Council provided for pursuing its AI technique include the potential of expert system for industrial improvement, much better social governance and keeping social stability. [14] As of the end of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business throughout fundamental, technical, and application layers, with related industries valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]
In 2019, the application of expert system expanded to numerous fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research. With the emergence of big language designs (LLMs), at the start of 2020, Chinese researchers began developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]
The Beijing Academy of Expert system introduced China’s first large scale pre-trained language design in 2022. [24] [25]:283
In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Infotech, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly provided the guidelines worrying deepfakes, which became reliable in January 2023. [26]
In July 2023, Huawei released its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]
In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on fundamental generative AI services security requirements, including specs for information collection and model training was issued in October 2023. [28]:96
Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government launched its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Community of Common Destiny and aims to develop AI policy discussion with establishing countries. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has revealed issue over AI safety risks, including abuse of data or making use of AI by terrorists. [28]:93
In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda project of the Ministry of Public Security, began using news anchors created with generative artificial intelligence to provide fake news clips. [18]
In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang launched the AI+ Initiative, which means to integrate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95
In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it presented a large language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]
According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in revenue over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd biggest. The 4th and 5th biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were applauded by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had been authorized by the Chinese government. [33]
As of 2024, lots of Chinese innovation firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually released AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]
Chronology of significant AI-related policies
Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs
National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
Government objectives
According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the leading edge of AI technology will be critical to the future of international military and economic power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council aims for China to make fundamental contributions to fundamental AI theory and to strengthen its place as an international leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council intends for AI to end up being “the main driving force for China’s industrial updating and economic improvement” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the worldwide leader in the advancement of artificial intelligence theory and technology. The State Council declares that China will have established a “fully grown new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]
According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese government “seeks to meld state preparation and control while some operational flexibility for companies. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid gamers. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competitors through domestic market defenses, creating asymmetric benefits as they expand offshore.” [36]
The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy declared AI as a top research concern and ranks AI initially among “frontier industries” that the Chinese government aims to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a strategic sector often supported by China’s federal government guidance funds. [37]:167
Research and development
Chinese public AI funding primarily focused on innovative and applied research. [38] The government financing also supported several AI R&D in the economic sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic firm research showed that, while China is enormously buying all elements of AI advancement, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous automobiles are AI sectors with the most attention and financing. [39]
According to nationwide assistance on establishing China’s modern industrial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county selected as an experimental advancement zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in experimental locations. However, the focus of AI R&D varied depending upon cities and local industrial development and ecosystem. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production market, greatly concentrates on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI applications and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282
In 2016 and 2017, Chinese groups won the top reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a worldwide competition for computer vision systems. [41] Many of these systems are now being integrated into China’s domestic monitoring network. [42]
Interdisciplinary cooperations play an important function in China’s AI R&D, consisting of academic-corporate partnership, public-private collaborations, and international cooperations and projects with corporate-government collaborations are the most common. [1] China ranked in the leading three worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the total variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China surpassed the U.S. in 2020 in the total variety of worldwide AI-related journal citations. [43] In terms of AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are generally sponsored by the government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system released the world’s largest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]
Since 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI researchers had finished their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101
According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has actually been proactive in controling AI services and enforcing commitments on AI companies, the overall method to its guideline is loose and shows a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]
Population
China’s big population produces a huge amount of available data for business and scientists, which provides a crucial advantage in the race of big information. As of 2024 [update], China has the world’s biggest number of internet users, producing substantial amounts of information for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18
Facial acknowledgment
Facial recognition is one of the most widely utilized AI applications in China. Collecting these big quantities of information from its homeowners helps more train and expand AI abilities. China’s market is not just favorable and valuable for corporations to further AI R&D however likewise offers incredible financial potential attracting both worldwide and domestic companies to sign up with the AI market. The extreme development of the details and communication innovation (ICT) industry and AI chipsets in recent years are two examples of this. [47] China has become the world’s largest exporter of facial acknowledgment innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]
Censorship and material controls
In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) provided draft steps stating that tech business will be obligated to make sure AI-generated material upholds the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, avoids discrimination, appreciates copyright rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, companies bear legal obligation for training data and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese federal government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced material may not “incite subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before launching a large language model to the general public, business should look for approval from the CAC to certify that the model declines to answer specific questions associating with political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions connected to politically sensitive topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre or contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh need to be decreased. [52]
In 2023, in-country gain access to was blocked to Hugging Face, a company that preserves libraries containing training data sets frequently used for big language models. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the main newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, provides regional companies with training data that CCP leaders think about acceptable. [8] In 2024, individuals’s Daily launched a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]
Microsoft has actually warned that the Chinese federal government utilizes generative artificial intelligence to interfere in foreign elections by spreading disinformation and provoking discussions on divisive political problems. [54] [55] [56]
The Chinese expert system design DeepSeek has been reported to refuse to answer questions relating to features of the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]
Impact
Economic impact
Most companies [who?] hold optimistic views about AI’s financial influence on China’s long-lasting economic growth. In the past, standard markets in China have had problem with the boost in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the deployment of AI, operational expenses are anticipated to decrease while a boost in performance creates earnings growth. [60] Some highlight the importance of a clear policy and governmental support in order to get rid of adoption barriers consisting of expenses and lack of effectively trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees might be the most negatively impacted by China’s AI advancement due to the fact that of increasing demands for workers with advanced abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s financial growth might be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related industrial development is concentrated in seaside regions instead of inland. [61]
An influential choice by the Beijing Internet Court has actually ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright security. [28]:98
Military impact
China seeks to develop a “world-class” armed force by “intelligentization” with a specific concentrate on using unmanned weapons and artificial intelligence. [62] [63] It is investigating numerous kinds of air, land, sea, and undersea autonomous cars. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 unoccupied aerial cars at an airshow. A media report released afterwards revealed a computer simulation of a similar swarm formation finding and damaging a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications indicated that China is likewise developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese advancement of military AI is largely influenced by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense development and worries of an expanding “generational space” in comparison to the U.S. military. Similar to U.S. military principles, China aims to utilize AI for making use of big chests of intelligence, producing a typical operating photo, and accelerating battlefield decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s action to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which seeks to incorporate sensing units and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]
Twelve categories of military applications of AI have actually been identified: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, smart munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software, automated cyberattack software application, choice assistance, software, automated missile launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software application. [67]
China’s management of its AI environment contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, few boundaries exist in between Chinese commercial companies, university research study laboratories, the military, and the main government. As a result, the Chinese federal government has a direct methods of directing AI development concerns and accessing technology that was ostensibly developed for civilian purposes. To further enhance these ties the Chinese federal government produced a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is planned to speed the transfer of AI innovation from commercial companies and research study organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to information collection and lower costs of information identifying to create the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one quote, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the prospective to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12
China’s centrally directed effort is investing in the U.S. AI market, in business working on militarily relevant AI applications, potentially granting it lawful access to U.S. innovation and copyright. [69] Chinese venture capital financial investment in U.S. AI companies between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an approximated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration provided an executive order to avoid foreign financial investments, “especially those from competitor or adversarial countries,” from purchasing U.S. technology companies, due to U.S. nationwide security issues. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese government has been investing, consisting of “microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] innovative tidy energy.” [71] [72]
In 2024, researchers from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have developed a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unapproved due to its model use restriction for military functions. [73] [74]
Academia
Although in 2004, Peking University introduced the very first scholastic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, particularly given that China faces obstacles in recruiting and keeping AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the information researchers in the United States have been operating in the field for over ten years, while roughly the very same percentage of data researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. As of 2017, less than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused professionals and research items. [61]:8 Although China surpassed the United States in the variety of research documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released documents, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th internationally. [75] China specifically want to resolve military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research, just recently established the very first kids’s curriculum in military AI in the world. [76]
In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database kept by an American thinktank, the portion increased to 58% in 2022. [77]
Ethical concerns
For the past years, there are conversations about AI safety and ethical issues in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology released the first nationwide ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with specific emphasis on user defense, information privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and quick technology adaptation by the big corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that human beings will remain completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Expert system published the Beijing AI concepts requiring necessary needs in long-lasting research study and planning of AI ethical concepts. [79]
Data security has been the most typical topic in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and many national federal governments have developed legislation addressing data personal privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to deal with new difficulties raised by AI development. [80] [original research?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was passed by the PRC congress, establishing a regulative structure classifying all sort of information collection and storage in China. [81] This implies all tech business in China are required to categorize their information into categories listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow specific guidelines on how to govern and manage data transfers to other parties. [81]
Judicial system
In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate conflicts associated with ecommerce and internet-related intellectual residential or commercial property claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court via videoconference and AI assesses the proof provided and uses pertinent legal requirements. [82]:124
Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial information can reach impartial decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, teacher of law at the China University of Political Science and Law, writes that AI-technology business might deteriorate judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing celebration leadership, political oversight, and minimizing the discretionary area of judges are intentional goals of SCR [smart court reform]” [85]
Leading business
Leading AI-centric business and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have gotten attention for facial acknowledgment, sound acknowledgment and drone innovations. [87]
China’s government takes a market-oriented technique to AI, and has actually looked for to encourage private tech business in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champions”. [25]:281
In 2023, Tencent debuted its large language model Hunyuan for enterprise use on Tencent Cloud. [88]
New leading AI start-ups consist of Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by investors as China’s new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually also been touted as a leading startup. [89]
Assessment
Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s commitment to international AI management and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally ingrained reasons for China’s anxiety towards securing a global technological dominance – China missed both commercial revolutions, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that originated in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to make the most of the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital technology including AI to resume China’s “rightful” place and to pursue the national rejuvenation proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]
An article published by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese government authorities demonstrated incredibly keen understanding of the concerns surrounding AI and global security. This consists of knowledge of the U.S. AI policy discussions,” and recommended that “the U.S. policymaking community to similarly prioritize cultivating knowledge and understanding of AI advancements in China” and “funding, focus, and a desire among U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale required modification.” [35] A post in the MIT Technology Review likewise concluded: “China may have unequaled resources and enormous untapped potential, but the West has world-leading proficiency and a strong research culture. Rather than fret about China’s development, it would be sensible for Western nations to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing heavily in research and education. ” [91]
The Chinese federal government’s censorship program has actually stunted the development of generative synthetic intelligence [7] [8]
In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations wrote that the development of AI produces difficulties for holistic nationwide security, including the risks that AI will increase social tensions or have destabilizing effects on worldwide relations. [28]:49
Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics consisting of Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will result in greater oppression of employees and more serious social issues. [28]:90 Gao points out how the advancement of AI has actually increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, resulting in greater capital accumulation and political power in less financial actors. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state should be the primary responsible star in the area of generative AI (developing brand-new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military use of AI dangers intensifying military competitors between countries which the effect of AI in military matters will not be limited to one country but will have spillover results. [28]:91
Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI professionals about the existential threat from artificial intelligence have taken place. [92]
Public ballot
The Chinese public is typically optimistic concerning AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study conducted throughout 28 nations discovered that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the advantages of AI surpass the risks, the highest of any country in the research study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese college student discovered that 80% concurred or highly agreed that AI will do more great than harm for society, and 31% believed it should be managed by the federal government. [93]
Human rights
The widely utilized AI facial acknowledgment has raised issues. [94] According to The New York City Times, deployment of AI facial recognition innovation in the Xinjiang region to spot Uyghurs is “the first known example of a federal government intentionally using expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is stated to be “one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have actually discovered that in China, locations experiencing greater rates of unrest are associated with increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition innovation, especially by regional municipal police departments. [97] [98]
Artificial intelligence.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of expert system companies
Regulation of expert system
References
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Further reading
Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.